Word order

 This section deals with two areas which can cause problems for students: word order with adjectives before a noun, and word order with adverbs after a noun.

 WORD ORDER BEFORE THE NOUN

The main way of describing a noun is to use adjectives or words that are like adjectives. You add these words after a, the, my, her etc, before the noun. You can add as many as you want, but you sometimes need to be careful about the order in which you use them.

 You have a choice of three kinds of word. The largest group consists of adjectives.

 a lovely day                a small round table               the best students

 You may also use a ‘participle’ before the noun ‑ the ‑ing or ‑ed form of a verb, but here used to describe the noun.

 a crumbling wall        her smiling face         a cracked window       the stolen car

 You may also add one noun before another ‑ the first noun is used to describe the second noun, which is the main noun in the phrase.

 the school buildings    a tourist paradise    a London bus

WHICH ORDER?

As soon as you use two or more describing words, you have to decide which order to put them in.

 In many cases, there is no rule: you simply say first what comes into your mind first. But many adjectives, and the other kinds of describing word, are typically used in a particular place before the noun. You should think of these patterns only as a guide to help you, because there are a number of cases which do not follow the rule. But the following patterns are common:

 1. Nouns go next to the main noun in the phrase, after any other adjectives.

 a big London bus  NOT a London big bus

the long country road  NOT  the country long road

 2. Words which are closely related to nouns, such as the material something is made of or where something is from, also go next to the main noun.

 big leather boots  NOT  leather big boots

a serious social problem  NOT  a social serious problem

 3. Participles usually go in front of groups (1) and (2), but after any adjectives.

 a broken garden chair  NOT  a garden broken chair

a smiling American tourist NOT  an American smiling tourist

a happy smiling American tourist  NOT  a smiling happy American tourist

 4. Adjectives with an ‘intensifying’ meaning, for example entire, whole, same go near the beginning, close to a, the, my, her etc.

 the entire local committee  NOT  the local entire committee

the same old battered car  NOT  the old battered same car

 5. Other adjectives follow (4) and go before (3). Those with a more general meaning usually come first, and those which describe properties of the noun which can be clearly seen, such as size and shape, usually come last. There are typical patterns here, too, as the table shows.

 those lovely red curtains  NOT  those red lovely curtains

a strange triangular table  NOT  a triangular strange table

 your opinion about sth –size- age- shape- colour- where sth is fro material

lovely big old round black American wool beautiful

beautiful little young square red French plastic

horrible small new L-shaped brown Japanese leather

WORD ORDER AFTER THE NOUN

Some adverbs of time and frequency usually come immediately after the main verb. These include:

 always, almost, just, rarely, nearly, already, ever, never, still

She is always complaining.  NOT  Always she is complaining.

They are still working.  NOT  Still they are working.

Always and never are sometimes used at the beginning of a sentence in instructions and warnings, when the verb does not have a subject.

Always keep medicines away from children.

Never look directly at the sun through a telescope.

Adverbs and adverb phrases should not come between the verb and the object.

I like Japanese food very much.  NOT  I like very much Japanese food.

Adverbs and adverb phrases should not come between a main verb and an ‑ing participle, or between a main verb and an infinitive.

Tomorrow we’ll go sightseeing.  NOT  We’ll go tomorrow sightseeing.

In the evenings she likes to watch television.  NOT  She likes in the evenings to watch television.

Adverbs and adverb phrases should not come between a modal verb (for example can, must, could) and a main verb.

 I can speak Spanish quite well.  NOT  I can quite well speak Spanish.

Verbs: intransitive and transitive

 Most verbs in English belong to either of two types: intransitive verbs or transitive verbs.

 INTRANSITIVE VERBS

 An intransitive verb does not have an object. You can use it without having to add any more words to the sentence. Here are some examples of intransitive verbs:                                                       

 Something’s happening.

I’ll wait.

It doesn’t matter.

 You can add other words to these sentences in order to show meanings such as time, place, or manner, but these words do not have to be there for the sentence to make sense.

 Something’s happening in the street.

I’ll wait for a few minutes.

It doesn’t matter at all.

 Other intransitive verbs include appear, come, go, smile, lie, and rise.

Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive.

   Don’t say ‘it was happened’ or ‘they were died’. Say it happened or they died.

TRANSITIVE VERBS

A transitive verb must have an object. Without the object, the sentence does not make sense. The object of the verb is usually a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun. Here are some examples of transitive verbs:

 She bought that dress in Tokyo. NOT She bought in Tokyo.

Did you find the key? NOT Did you find?

I really like him. NOT I really like.

Sometimes the object is a clause which begins + (that). For example:

I wish she would stop smoking.  OR I wish  that she would stop smoking.

 Sometimes the object is a whole sentence. For example:

 “It’s time to go home,” he said.

 Other transitive verbs include make, use, need, thank, enjoy, keep, and carry.

VERBS THAT CAN BE TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE

Several verbs can be used in a transitive or intransitive way. Here are some examples of verbs that can be transitive or intransitive:

 There’s no need to shout. [Intransitive]

Someone shouted my name. [Transitive]

 Where do you want to meet? [Intransitive]

I’ll meet you outside the school. [Transitive]

 I’m sorry. I don’t understand. [Intransitive]

She didn’t understand his explanation. [Transitive]

 The intransitive uses are very similar to the transitive ones, except that the object been left out.

 OTHER VERBS

Some verbs can be followed by an adjective or adjective phrase. Here are some examples of these verbs:

 You seem tired.

It all sounds very interesting.

Was he angry?

Talking about the future

There are several ways of talking about the future in English.

THE FUTURE WITH ‘WILL’

You put the verb will in front of the main verb. This is the most common way of expressing future time. The short form of  will is ’ll and the short form of will not is won’t. You usually use these in spoken English instead of will or will not. The main verb can be either in its ‘simple’ form or in its ‘progressive’ form. For example:

 I will talk to them.

We’ll have a break at six o’clock.

I’ll talk to them.

He’ll be arriving later.

Don’t worry ‑ I won’t break it.

 You use will in this meaning in sentences that begin I’m sure, I think, I expect, I suppose, I doubt etc, or with words such as probably, perhaps, certainly etc.

 Do you think Carla will pass her test?” “Yes, I’m sure she will.”

I’ll see him again soon.

They say it’ll probably snow tomorrow.

Perhaps things will be better next week.

THE FUTURE WITH ‘SHALL’

In British English, you often use shall in questions when making suggestions about what to do, or when discussing what to do. This use is rare in American English.

 Shall we go now?

What shall I tell Mike?

 In formal British English, you can sometimes hear I shall used to express future time.

 I shall try to persuade them.

 This is very rare in American English.

THE FUTURE WITH ‘BE GOING TO’

You use a form of be going to to say that something will happen soon.

 It’s going to rain.

Watch out ‑ you’re going to hit that tree!

I think I’m going to be sick.

You also use a form of be going to to talk about someone’s intentions, or what they have decided to do.

 I’m going to ask for my money back.

Lucy is going to travel round the world when she leaves school.

THE FUTURE WITH ‘BE ABOUT TO’

You use be about to to say that something will happen almost immediately.

 Take your seats, please. The show is about to begin.

I was about to go out when the phone rang.

THE FUTURE WITH THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

You use the present progressive (he’s leaving, they’re starting etc) with a word or phrase expressing future time to talk about something that will happen because you have planned or arranged it.

We’re leaving on Saturday morning.

I’m having a party next week ‑ do you want to come?

THE FUTURE WITH THE SIMPLE PRESENT

You use the simple present (it starts, we arrive etc) with a word or phrase expressingfuture time, to say that something will definitely happen at a particular time, especially because it has been officially arranged.

The next plane to Los Angeles leaves at 6:25.

The meeting is on Thursday.

What time does the show start?

You use the simple present in subordinate clauses to talk about the future, for example in clauses that begin with when, if, unless, before, after, and as soon as. Don’t use will in this kind of clause.

 I’ll call you when I get back. NOT I’ll call you when I will get back.

If the bus leaves now, it will get there by 6. NOT If the bus will leave now, it will get there by 6.

Talking about the present

English has two main ways of talking about present time: the simple present and the present progressive.

THE SIMPLE PRESENT

You make the simple present by using the verb in its basic form. You add ‑s or ‑es to the verb in the third person singular.

The simple present is used in the following ways:

 1. You use the simple present to talk about something which is happening now, and which will continue to happen in the future. You often use the simple present in this meaning to talk about things that are true about your life, for example where you live, your job, or the kinds of things you like.

 Martin lives in Canada.

I work in a hospital.

"What kind of books do you read?”  “I mostly read science fiction."

 2. You use the simple present when you talk about something which happens again and again, or when you say that something happens regularly at a particular time. Use words such as always, often, sometimes, occasionally, and never, or phrases such as on Tuesdays or every day with the simple present in this meaning.

 They often go out to restaurants.

I travel to London twice a month.

He gets up at 6 o'clock.

She goes to church every Sunday.

 3.  You use the simple present to talk about something which stays the same for ever - such as a scientific fact.

 Oil floats on water.

Two and two make four.

4.  You use the simple present when you are describing what is happening at the exact moment when you are speaking. This meaning of the simple present is used for example in sports commentaries.

Shearer gets the ball from Gascoigne. He shoots ‑ and scores!

 For descriptions of actions that are happening now, you usually use the present progressive rather than the present simple. For example:

 “What are you doing?" "I’m  making a poster." NOT "What do you do?" “I make a poster.”

THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE   

You make the present progressive by using a form of the verb be in the present tense,followed by the main verb with an ‑ing ending, for example l am waiting, she is coming.

 The present progressive is used in the following ways:

 1.  You use the present progressive to talk about something which is happening now at the time you are speaking or writing. You often use this meaning with words and phrases that express present time, such as now, at the moment, and currently.

 “What's Bob doing?" "He's watching television."

It's raining again.

I’m looking for my glasses.

 2. You use the present progressive to say that something is happening now, but will only continue for a limited period of time. Compare these pairs of sentences:

 We live in France. (="France" is our permanent home)

We're living in France. (="we" are living there for a limited period of time)

 He cooks his own meals. (="he" always does it)

He's cooking his own meals. (="he" does not usually do it)

 If you want to talk about the subjects you are studying at school or university, you usually use the present progressive.

 She's studying law at Harvard. NOT She studies law at Harvard.

I’m studying English. NOT  I study English.

VERBS THAT CANNOT BE USED IN THE PROGRESSIVE

Verbs which express a situation or process, rather than describing a definite action, are not usually used in the progressive. Do not use the progressive with the following verbs:

 be                                have                           see

believe                       like                              agree

know                           love                            disagree

recognize                  hate                            mean

remember                  prefer                         need

understand               want                           deserve

wish                            belong

I know the answer.  NOT  I am knowing the answer.

She understands me.  NOT She is understanding me.

Talking about the Past

There are several ways of talking about actions that happened in the past. These include the simple past, the past progressive, the present perfect, the past perfect, and the phrase used to.

 THE SIMPLE PAST

You usually make the simple past by adding -ed to the end of the verb. For example:

 I walk               → I walked

we wait             → we waited

they jump        → they jumped

 Many common verbs have irregular simple past forms, and so you have to use a special ending, or change the verb in some other way. For example:

 I go                   → I went

we buy              → we bought

they see           → they saw

You use the simple past to talk about an action which happened and finished in the past. There is a space between the time when the action happened, and the time when you are speaking or writing about it.

 He kicked the ball into the net.

I went home early because I had a headache.

The police found a dead body in the river.

 You often use words or phrases such as at midnight, on Tuesday, in 1992, yesterday, and last year with the simple past, to draw attention to the time when something happened. For example:

 Our visitors arrived yesterday.

Where did you go last week?

The war ended in 1945.

THE PAST PROGRESSIVE

You make the past progressive by using was or were, followed by the main verb with an ‑ing ending, for example I was looking, they were laughing.

 The past progressive is used in the following ways:

 1. You use the past progressive when you want to talk about something that happened in the past, and continued to happen for only a limited period of time.

 We were living in France at that time.

I was trying to get the waiter’s attention.

The man was looking at me in a very strange way.

 2. You use the past progressive to talk about something which continued to happen for a period of time, during which another thing happened.

 I was watching TV when the phone rang.

They met each other while they were staying in London.

  Some verbs are not usually used in the progressive. Don’t say, ‘I was not believing him’. Say I did not believe him.

 Do not use the progressive with the following verbs:

 be                                have                           see

believe                       like                              agree

know                           love                            disagree

recognize                  hate                            mean

remember                  prefer                         need

understand                want                           deserve

wish                            belong

THE PRESENT PERFECT

You make the present perfect by using has or have, followed by the ‘past participle’ form of the main verb, for example I have walked, she has gone, they have seen.

The present perfect is used in the following ways:

1. You use the present perfect to talk about something that happened in the past and is finished, but which still affects the situation now.

Someone has broken the window. (RESULT NOW: it is still broken, and needs to be mended)

The taxi has arrived. (RESULT NOW: someone needs to go and get into the taxi)

Jane’s hurt her hand, so she can’t write. (RESULT NOW: Jane can’t write)

You often use just and recently with the present perfect in this meaning.

 Jane’s just left, but you might catch her in the car park.

 In American English, people often use the simple past instead of the present perfect in this sense.

   British English                                                      American English

   I’ve just seen Carol.                                               I just saw Carol.

   You’ve already told me that.                                 You already told me that.

   Have they come home yet?                                  Did they come home yet?

 2. You use the present perfect to say that something started to happen in the past, and has continued to happen up to now. There is a clear difference with the past tense, which you use when the action is finished. Compare these sentences:

 present perfect: I have lived in Chicago for many years. (=I still live there now)

simple past: I lived in Chicago for many years. (="now" I live somewhere else)

present perfect: Jim has worked for us since 1992. (="he" still works for us now)

simple past: Jim worked for us from 1992 to 1996. (="he" does not work for us any more)

  Don’t say ‘I am living here for 10 years’, or ‘I live here for 10 years’. Say I have lived here for 10 years.

3. You use the present perfect to talk about something that happened at some time in the past before now, but it is not important to say when it happened.

She has had several jobs abroad.

There have been problems with this system in the past.

 This meaning of the present perfect is often used in news reports.

 There has been a big earthquake in Japan, and hundreds of people have been killed.

 You can emphasize this meaning by using ever in questions, or never in negative sentences. For example:

 Have you ever visited Scotland?

I’ve never been in a plane before.

 If you give the date, year, or time when something happened, you must use the simple past, not the present perfect. For example:

 I spoke to him yesterday. NOT I have spoken to him yesterday.

They arrived in the US last week. NOT They have arrived in the US last week.

THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

You make the present perfect progressive by using have been/has been, followed by the main verb with an ‑ing ending, for example I have been living, she has been studying. The present perfect progressive has very similar meanings to the present perfect, but draws attention to the period of time during which the action has taken place.

 The present perfect progressive is used in the following ways:

1. You use the present perfect progressive to talk about something which has continued to happen for a period of time in the past, and which may still be happening now.

 How long have you been learning English?

We’ve been expecting them to arrive since last Thursday.

 2. You use the present progressive to talk about something which has been taking place recently and which affects the situation now.

 “You look tired.” “I’ve been working really hard.”

It’s been raining all week, so the ground’s very wet.

  Don’t say ‘I’ve been knowing John for a long time’. Say I have known John for a Iong time.

 Do not use the following verbs in the progressive:

 be                                have                           see

believe                       like                              agree

know                           love                            disagree

recognize                  hate                            mean

remember                  prefer                         need

understand                want                            deserve

wish                            belong

THE PAST PERFECT

If you want to talk about a past action which took place before another past action, you can use had, followed by the past participle of the main verb.

 After the visitors had left, we watched TV.

They told me that the taxi had already arrived

 You can also use the past perfect in a ‘progressive’  form by using had been, and putting it in front of a main verb with an ‑ing ending.

 We had only been driving for an hour when the car ran out of petrol.

Using the right time phrases with the past tense

If you use words or phrases about time with the simple past, they must have a meaning which shows there has been a space between the time when the action or event happened and the time when you are talking or writing about it. For example:

I saw John yesterday/a week ago/last Tuesday.

If you use other words or phrases about time with the present perfect, they must have a meaning which shows that the action has continued up to the present, and may still going on. For example:

I haven’t seen John since Monday/so far/yet.

  Don’t say ‘I’ve seen him a week ago’ or ‘I didn’t see John since Monday’.

 USED TO

You use used to when you want to say that something happened in the past over a period of time, but it no longer happens now. It is found only in the past tense. You use used to with the basic form of the main verb, for example used to smoke, used to live, used to be.

 I used to play football a lot when I was at school.

She used to smoke 40 cigarettes a day.

The club used to be very fashionable.

They used to live in Los Angeles.

In negatives, you say didn’t use to, or used not to.

 I didn’t use to like spicy food. OR I used not to like spicy food.

 In questions, you say did (you/she/john etc) use to ... ?

 Did you use to smoke?

What did she use to call him?

Statements and questions

STATEMENTS

A statement is a sentence which gives information. If you make a statement, you usually give the sentence a subject, and this must go in front of the verb.

 The children are playing  in the garden.

 NEGATIVE STATEMENTS

Negative statements are made in two main ways:

1. If the statement contains an auxiliary verb, such as is or have, you usually add not or its contracted form n’t.

 She is not leaving. OR She isn’t leaving.

 Am and may do not allow n’t. Will, shall, and can have special contracted forms: won’t, shan’t, can’t.

 The same rules apply when you make a question negative.

 Are they in the garden? Aren’t they in the garden?

WiII he get the job? Won’t he get the job?

 2. If the statement has no auxiliary verb, you need to make the negative using a form of do + not/n’t. Make sure that the main verb is in its basic form.

 She likes swimming. She doesn’t like swimming. NOT She doesn’t likes swimming.

I saw a ship. I didn’t see a ship. NOT I didn’t saw a ship.

 QUESTIONS

Questions are sentences which ask for information. They fall into three main types, depending on the kind of reply they expect.

 ‘Yes‑no questions’ expect a simple yes or no reply (or a word or phrase which can be used instead of yes or no). In these cases, you change the order of subject and verb.

 Will Jane resign? (Possible answers: yes, no, don’t know; probably, maybe etc)

Are they ready?

‘Wh‑ questions’ begin with a question word, such as what, why, where, or how. This kind of question can have a wide range of different replies. The answer may be a full sentence, or one which leaves out the words that you can guess from knowing the question. Here too, you need to change the order of subject and verb.

 Where are you going? (Possible answers: I’m going to work, downstairs, the library etc)

 ‘Alternative questions’ give the listener a choice of two possible replies, both of which are mentioned in the question. The two possibilities are connected by the word or. Once again, you must change the order of subject and verb.

 Will you travel by train or by boat? (Possible answers: by train, by boat, don’t know etc)

Tag questions

You can change a statement into a question by adding a ‘tag question’ at the end of it. When you use a tag question, you are asking the listener to agree with the statement you have just made. If you make the statement positive, you expect the answer yes. If you make it negative, you expect the answer no.

 A tag question is a type of ‘yes‑no question’, and shows the same change of word order. You use the same personal pronoun (she, they etc) and tense of the verb as in the statement to which the tag question is joined. In the most common kind of tag question, you change from positive to negative, or from negative to positive.

 She’s outside, isn’t she? (Expected answer: yes)

They were ready, weren’t they? (Expected answer: yes)

You aren’t going, are you? (Expected answer: no)

It isn’t difficult, is it? (Expected answer: no)

Questions which are not questions

You can also use a sentence which looks like a question, but it is one where you are not actually expecting any reply. Because these sentences are halfway between a question and an exclamation, you will find them sometimes written with a question‑mark and sometimes with an exclamation mark.

 In some cases, you already know the answer or you are asking your listener to agree with you. These sentences are called ‘exclamatory questions’.

 Hasn’t she grown!

Wasn’t the book marvellous?

 In other cases, no answer is possible. (Of course your listener may still give you an

answer, whether you like it or not!) These sentences are used when you want to

express a strong feeling about something. They are called ‘rhetorical questions’.

 Doesn’t everyone know that the whole thing is impossible?

Reported speech

REPORTING STATEMENTS

Direct speech

If you want to write what someone has said, the simplest way is to repeat the exact words that they had used in quotation marks (“...”). This is called ‘direct speech’.

 “I really enjoyed the meal,” he said.

She went upstairs and shouted, “Time to get up!”

 If you mention the speaker at the end of the sentence, and do not say he or she, you usually reverse the order of the subject and the verb. For example:

 “It’s much too cold to swim,” said Frank.

“Go back to your room,” said her mother.

Indirect speech

You can also report what someone has said without using quotation marks. This is called ‘indirect speech’. The usual way of doing this is to use a clause which begins with + (that). For example:

 “I’m tired!”

He said he was tired.  OR  He said that he was tired.

 That is more common in written English and in formal spoken English.

 Changing from direct to indirect speech

When changing from direct to indirect speech, you need to change the grammar in certain ways.

 Verb tense forms usually need to change. In most cases, you change the present tense into the past tense.

 She said, “I am staying at the Chelsea Hotel.”

She said that she was staying at the Chelsea Hotel.

If the direct speech is already in the past tense, you need to put the verb even further back in time, using had. This applies to both past tense and present perfect forms of the verb.

 He said, “I came by bus.”

He said that he had come by bus.

 She said, “I’ve definitely seen John recently”.

She said that she had definitely seen John recently.

 However, you do not use this rule if the verb in the direct speech already uses had.

 She said, “I had given up hope of seeing him again.”

She said that she had given up hope of seeing him again.

 The correct relationship between the verbs in the reporting clause and the verb in the reported clause is called the ‘sequence of tenses’.

 If you report something that someone said, which is still true now, you do not need to change the tense of the verb.

 “I want to get married.”

She said she wants to get married.

 “Blue’s my favourite colour.”

She said that blue’s her favourite colour.

 If the direct speech contains will, shall, or may, these also need to change.

 will →would               shall → should                      may →might

 She said, “I will see you soon.”

She said that she would see us soon.

 Would, should, could, might, and must do not change.

 She said, “I could visit him on Thursday.”

She said she could visit him on Thursday.

 You also need to change certain personal pronouns. I and you have to be changed to he and she, unless the original people are still taking part in the conversation. Similarly, my and your need to be changed to his and her.

Mary said to John, “I saw your cat.”

Mary said that she had seen your cat. (if the person who says this is talking to John)

Mary said that she had seen his cat. (if the person who says this is not talking to John)

 You also need to change times and places which depend on the speaker’s point of view.

 He said, “I saw the car here yesterday.”

He said that he’d seen the car there the day before.

 In this case here becomes there because you are in a different place, and yesterday becomes the day before because you are now speaking at a later time.

Similarly, now becomes then, last week becomes the week before, two months ago becomes two months before, tomorrow becomes the next day, and so on. Of course, if the time phrase does not depend on the speaker’s point of view, it can be used without change.

 He said, “I bought the car in November 1996.”

He said he had bought the car in November 1996.

REPORTING QUESTIONS

When you are changing a question from direct speech into indirect speech, you follow the same kinds of rules as for statements. The only differences are that you need to use a different word to introduce the reported speech, and the word order of the question becomes like that of a statement. You end the sentence with a full stop, not a question mark.

 You use if or whether to introduce a ‘yes‑no question’.

 I asked, “Does he eat meat?”

I asked whether he ate meat.  OR  I asked if he ate meat.

 You introduce questions where there is a choice in the same way ‑ more usually by using whether than by using if.

 I asked, “Is it Karen’s book or Michael’s?”

I asked whether it was Karen’s book or Michael’s.

 You introduce questions that begin with who, why, what, how etc by using the word which begins the question in direct speech.

Someone asked, “Why doesn’t she resign?”

Someone asked why she didn’t resign.

She asked, “When will you go back to Japan?”

She asked when he would go back to Japan.

 You often mention the person who is being asked the question, by using a pronoun (him, her, them etc) or by mentioning their name.

I asked him if he ate meat.

She asked Michael when he would go back to Japan.

 REPORTING WHAT SOMEONE HAS TOLD OR ASKED ANOTHER PERSON TO DO

When saying what someone has told or asked another person to do, you usually use an infinitive.

“Go home!”

She told him to go home.

 “Can you shut the window?”

She asked him to shut the window.

  Don’t confuse say and tell. Don’t say ‘He said me to go home.’ or ‘He told, Go home!’ Say He told me to go home. or He said, “Go home!”

Phrasal verbs

WHAT IS A PHRASAL VERB?

A phrasal verb is a verb which consists of more than one word. Most phrasal verbs consist of two words: the first word is a verb, the second word is a preposition or an adverb. Examples of common phrasal verbs are get up, put off, turn on, object to, and apply for. There are also some three‑word phrasal verbs, such as look forward to and get away with.

You can sometimes guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the meaning of the words it contains, for example come in = come + in. More often, the meaning of the phrasal verb is different ‑ often very different ‑ from the meaning of the verb which forms its first part.

For example put off (="arrange" to do something at a later time) has a very different meaning from put (="put" something somewhere), and look forward to (="when" you feel happy because something is going to happen soon) has a very different meaning from look (="look" at something).

Like single‑word verbs, some phrasal verbs are ‘transitive’ (they must have an object), and some phrasal verbs are ‘intransitive’ (they do not have an object). For example:

take off [phrasal verb, Transitive] (="remove" your shirt, coat etc)

She took off her coat and sat down.

get up [phrasal verb, Intransitive] (="leave" your bed in the morning)

I usually get up very early.

 Some phrasal verbs can be transitive or intransitive. For example:

join in [phrasal verb, Intransitive/Transitive] (="start" taking part in something that other people are already doing, for example a game or song)

 We all joined in the game.

I want you all to join in.

WHERE DO YOU PUT THE OBJECT?

With transitive phrasal verbs, you have to decide where to put the object.

 • If the phrasal verb ends with a preposition, the preposition must come after the verb, and you cannot split up the phrasal verb. For example:

 apply for sth (="ask" to be considered for a job)

I’ve applied for a job at the university.

object to sth (="say" that you do not agree with something)

Local people are objecting to the plan.

 • If the phrasal verb ends with an adverb, there are three possibilities.

 1. If you choose a noun phrase as the object, you can put it either before or after the adverb. For example:

 call off (="decide" that a meeting, party, strike etc should not happen)

They’ve called off the strike. OR They’ve called the strike off.

turn on (="make" a light, television, radio etc start working)

Will you turn on the light? OR Will you turn the light on?

 2. If you choose a pronoun (him, her, it, them etc) as the object, you have to put it before the adverb. For example:

 turn down (="make" a television, radio etc less loud)

Can you turn it down? NOT Can you turn down it?

 3. If the object is a long phrase, you usually put it at the end after the phrasal verb. For example:

 They’ve called off the strike that was planned for next week.

Can you turn down the television in the front room?

Nouns: countable and uncountable

COUNTABLE NOUNS

A noun is ‘countable’ if you can think of it as one of several separate units, for example book, egg, or horse. As the name suggests, countable nouns can actually be counted.

 UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

A noun is ‘uncountable’ if you cannot think of it as one of several separate units, but only as a single idea or substance, for example butter, music, or advice. These nouns are sometimes called ‘mass’ nouns. They cannot be counted.

 GRAMMATICAL DIFFERENCES

There are some important grammatical differences in the way you use countable and uncountable nouns.

1. You can use a countable noun in the singular or in the plural, for example book/books, egg/eggs, horse/horses, ticket/tickets, university/universities. Don’t try to use uncountable nouns in the plural. Don’t say butters, musics, advices, informations, furnitures. It is a common mistake to use an uncountable noun in the plural.

 You should listen to his advice.  NOT  You should listen to his advices.

 2. You can use a countable noun with a or an: for example a book, an egg, a horse, a ticket, a university. Don’t use a or an with uncountable nouns. Don’t say a butter, a music, an advice, an information, a furniture. It is a common mistake to use a or an with an uncountable noun.

I like listening to music.  NOT  I like listening to a music.

 3. You can use an uncountable noun with quantity words such as some and any: some butter, any music. If you want to use these words with countable nouns, you must put the nouns into the plural, and say some tickets, any eggs.

She bought some books.  NOT  She bought some book.

 4. You can only use the quantity expressions much, how much, or a little with uncountable nouns. With countable nouns, you have to use many, how many, or a few.

 uncountable                                                  countable

I don’t have much money.                              He doesn’t have many friends.

How much time do you have?                        How many records do you have?

There is a little butter in the fridge.                 There are a few rooms still available.

5. You can use an uncountable noun on its own without such words as the, some, or any.

 She doesn’t eat meat.

If you need advice, don’t be afraid to ask.

 You cannot use a countable noun in the singular in this way ‑ only in the plural.

 I like reading books.  NOT  I like reading book.

Computers are always causing problems.  NOT  Computers are always causing problem.

 NOUNS WHICH CAN BE COUNTABLE OR UNCOUNTABLE

You can use some nouns in either a countable or an uncountable way, depending on their meaning. The following pairs of sentences show how the meaning can change: in each case there is a countable noun in the first sentence, and an uncountable noun in the second.

 Would you like a cake? (="one" of several cakes which someone can take to eat)

Do you like chocolate cake? (="a" type of food)

 The lambs were born early this year. (="the" animals)

There are several ways of cooking lamb. (="a" type of meat)

 Most abstract nouns, such as love, anger, knowledge, intelligence, or freedom, are always uncountable. But some abstract nouns can also be used in a countable way.

 uncountable                                                  countable

They did it with difficulty.                                 They’ve had a lot of difficulties.

Her voice sounded full of doubt.                     I have my doubts about whether he’s the right person for the job.

Modal verbs

The main ‘modal verbs’ (or ‘modals’) are:

 can, may, will, shall, must, could, might, would, should

 Ought to, used to, dare and need are also used as modal verbs, but they have other uses  as well.

WHEN TO USE MODAL VERBS

Modals have several meanings, so you need to think about the meaning of the sentence as a whole to be sure that your choice of modal expresses exactly what you want to say. The main ideas that modals are used to express are shown in the following sections.

Permission

(="allowing" someone to do something)

 If you want to give or ask for permission, use can or may. May is more polite or formal than can.

 You can leave when the bell rings.

Customers may purchase extra copies at half price.

 Could is a polite way of asking for permission.

 Could I leave early today?

 Might is a very formal and old‑fashioned way of asking for permission.

 Might I borrow your umbrella?

Obligation

(="saying" what someone must do)

 If you want to demand that something happens, or that someone does something (="to" express obligation), use must. You can also use this idea about yourself, in order to express a sense of duty.

 The builders must finish the job today.

We mustn’t leave the house before 6 o’clock.

I must remember to bring my notebook.

Intention

(="saying" what you are going to do)

 If you want to say that you intend to do something, use will or shall. You can emphasize the meaning of intention if you say the modal louder than the surrounding words.

 Shall is only used with the first person (I or we), and is much less common than will. It is hardly ever used in American English.

 This letter says they will definitely give us our money back.

I shan’t stay long.

 To express an intention at a time in the past, use would.

 I tried to explain, but nobody would listen.

 Use would if there are conditions controlling whether something will take place.

 I would leave tomorrow, if I had the money.

Ability

(="saying" whether you are able to do something)

 If you want to say whether someone is able to carry out an action, use can.

 Guy can speak Russian.

Can you remember her name?

I can’t find my shoes!

 When you put these sentences into the past tense, use could.

 He was late for school because he couldn’t find his bag.

 Use could if there are conditions controlling whether the event will take place.

 I could leave tomorrow, if I had the money.

Possibility

(="saying" whether something is possible)

If you want to say that something is possible, use can or may. May is more polite or formal than can.

You can go by bus from London to Liverpool.

You may find the manager is still there, if you go to the office now.

 If you want to suggest that the action is less likely to happen, use could or might. If you use might, you mean that the action is especially unlikely.

 We could go by bus.

We might go by bus. (="it" is possible, but only if there are no problems)

Probability

(="saying" whether something is likely)

 If you want to suggest that an event is likely to happen, use should or ought to. It will probably take place, but you are not completely sure.

 They should have had our reply by now.

If you take these tablets, you should be all right.

We ought to be there by 6 o’clock.

Desirability

(="saying" that something is the right thing to do)

 If you want to say that you think it is a good thing for something to happen, use should or ought to. If you think that it is a bad thing for something to happen, put these verbs into the negative.

 You should get the early flight, if you want to be in good time.

You ought to see the doctor as soon as possible.

You shouldn’t say things like that.

You oughtn’t to have left the engine running.

Necessity

(="saying" that something is necessary)

 If you want to say that it is necessary for something to happen, use must.

We really must go now.

I must get my hair cut this weekend.

 If you want to express the opposite meaning (="it" is unnecessary for something to happen) use needn’t/need not or not need to.

 There’s plenty of time, so you needn’t worry.

   Don’t use mustn’t because this gives the meaning of obligation.

Certainty

(="saying" that you are sure about something)

 If you want to say that you are sure something is true, use must.

 You must be tired, after all your hard work.

They must have left by now.

 To express the opposite meaning (="you" are sure something is not true) use can’t.

 You can’t be that tired ‑ you’ve only been working for an hour!

They can’t have left yet.

Prediction

(="saying" what you think is going to happen)

 If you want to say that something is certain to happen, use either will or shall. As with the other uses of these words, shall tends to be found only with the first person (I or we), and is much less common than will. Shall is very rare in American English.

 The cars will be there on time, I promise.

There is no doubt that we shall win.

 HOW TO USE MODAL VERBS

• Modal verbs are used with the basic form of the verb (="the" infinitive form, without ‘to’).

 You must pay now.                             NOT  You must to pay now.

They can go home if they want.          NOT  They can to go home if they want.

• Modal verbs do not have an ‑s ending in the present tense of the third person singular,

 He can speak French.                                    NOT  He cans speak French.

 • Modal verbs do not use do in questions or negatives.

 Can you remember her name?         NOT  Do you can remember her name?

We must not be late.                           NOT  We don’t must be late.

Should we lock the door?                    NOT   Do we should lock the door?

 • Modal verbs do not have an infinitive, a past participle, or a present participle.

 • In spoken English, you often use short forms when you use the modal verb in the negative.

 cannot             →        can’t

could not         →        couldn’t

will not              →        won’t

must not          →       mustn’t

shall not            →       shan’t

might not          →       mightn’t

would not         →        wouldn’t

should not       →        shouldn’t

ought not         →        oughtn’t

 Mustn’t, shan’t, mightn’t, and oughtn’t are normal in British English, but American speakers usually say must not, shall not, might not, and ought not.

Determiners and articles

‘Determiners’ are used before a noun to ‘determine’ the character of the noun ‑ in particular, how ‘definite’ or ‘general’ a noun it is, and whether it is ‘one’ or ‘more than one’. When you use a noun, you have the choice of using it in one of three possible states.

 1. You can use the noun without any determiner at all.

 • in the singular, if it is a proper noun                   Boston is on the east coast.

• in the singular, if it is an uncountable noun        I can hear music.

• in the plural, if it is a countable noun                  Tigers have black stripes.

 When you use a plural countable noun without the article, you are seeing the noun in a general way - ‘tigers in general’.

 2. You can use the noun with either of the ‘articles’, a or the:

 • use a with singular, countable nouns           I can see a car.

• use the with singular countable nouns        I can see the car.

• use the with plural countable nouns            I can see the cars.

• use the with uncountable nouns                  I can see the water.

 The articles are the most common determiners in English. Their main job is to say whether the noun is ‘definite’ or ‘indefinite’.

 3. You can use the noun with one of the other determiners. This adds a further meaning to the noun. For example:

 determiner                                adds the meaning of

my book                                      ‘possession’ also (our, his, her etc)

this book                                    ‘nearness to the speaker’ (also plural these)

that book                                    ‘distance from the speaker’ (also plural those)

some books                               ‘quantity’ (also any)

enough books                           ‘sufficiency’

each book                                  ‘item by item’ (also every)

either book                                ‘one of two’ (also neither)

no book                                      ‘absence’

what book                                   ‘unknown item’ (also which, whose etc)

  You cannot use two determiners at the same time. Don’t say things like ‘the this car’, ‘my an apple’, or ‘some the cups’.

 You can use other words or phrases expressing quantity in front of a determiner to make the meaning of the noun phrase more exact.

 NOTE: (of) shows that you can leave out the word of.

all (of) the people             both (of) the cats                     half (of) the gold

double the amount           twice the cost                          a third of the people

a few of the cars               half (of) that cake                    some of those cakes

 You can also add certain quantity words after the determiner. They include the numerals, as well as a few general expressions of quantity.

 The three kittens were playing on the floor.

I’ve just taken my fourth examination.

He bought it on one of his many trips abroad.

 If you want to add adjectives to the noun phrase, they always follow any determiners or other quantity expressions.

 the three little kittens

my fourth difficult examination

his many interesting trips

 WHEN TO USE ‘A’ AND ‘THE’

A and the are called ‘the articles’. A is called ‘the indefinite article’, and the is called ‘the definite article’. They are used in the following ways:

 1. The main use of a and the is to say whether you are talking about a noun for the first time, or whether you have mentioned it before. For a first‑time mention, use a; for later mentions, use the.

Mary bought a car and a bike, but she used the bike more often.

 2. If you use the with a noun that you have not mentioned before, you are actually saying to your listener ‘you know which one I mean’. This is usually because there is only one example of the noun in the situation, or you have only one such example in your mind. That is why it is ‘definite’.

 Have you fed the cat? (=you have only one cat)

There’s the hotel. (="that" is the hotel we have been looking for)

I met him during the war. (="both" you and your listener know which war you mean)

Pass the salt, please.

 3. If you want to talk about something of a particular type in an indefinite way, use a.

 I’m training to be an engineer.  NOT  I’m training to be engineer.

I went out to buy a newspaper.  NOT  I went out to buy newspaper.

 4. Use a when you are talking about one of several things or people and it is not important to say which one. Use the when it is clear that you are talking about one particular thing or person and there is only one.

 A man I work with told me about it. (=you work with several men)

The man I work with told me about it. (="you" work with only one man)

 5. You must use the with singular nouns such as world, sky, or sun, because there is only one of these things in the situation that you are talking about.

 We’re going to travel round the world.

Don’t look directly at the sun.

 6. If you are talking about buildings, places, and organizations as things which you often see or visit, use the. For example the bank, the theatre, the cinema etc.

 I went to the theatre last week.

She’s at the gym.

  When a is used before a word that begins with a vowel, it changes to an.

 WHEN NOT TO USE ‘A’ OR ‘THE’

1. If you want to use a countable noun in the plural to talk in general about something, don’t use the.

 Tigers are very fierce animals.

Prices keep going up.

 2. If you want to use an uncountable noun to talk in general about something, don’t use the.

 There has been a big increase in crime.  NOT  There has been a big increase in the crime.

It takes patience and skill to be a teacher.  NOT  It takes the patience and the skill to be a teacher.

 3. Most names of places or people that begin with a capital letter do not have the before them. Don’t use the with these names.

 They’re visiting Belgium and Holland.  NOT  They’re visiting the Belgium and the

Holland.

 However, there are some names that always have the in them, for example the United States, the Nile (="the" big river in Egypt) etc. Don’t forget to put the in these names.

 He’s from the United States.  NOT  He’s from United States.

 4. There are also many common nouns and phrases which do not use a or the. This is especially true when talking about meals, illnesses, ways of travelling, times and periods of time.

 Will you have lunch with me?               NOT  Will you have the lunch with me?

Her mother has cancer.                         NOT   Her mother has the cancer.

I travel to work by bus.                            NOT   I travel to work by the bus.

In winter we get a lot of snow.                NOT  In winter we get a lot of the snow.

It’s time to go to bed.                             NOT  It’s time to go to the bed.

We got up at dawn.                                NOT We got up at the dawn.

Conditionals

When you want to say that one situation (described in the main clause) depends on another situation, you use a conditional clause. Conditional clauses usually begin with if or (for negative clauses) unless.

 Jane will pass the exam if she works hard.

Jane will not pass the exam unless she works hard.

 They may follow or go in front of the main clause.

If Jane works hard, she will pass her exam.

 Conditional clauses are used in two main ways:

• If you see the situation as a real one, and likely to happen, you use the present simple tense in the conditional clause and will (’ll) or won’t in the main clause. Don’t use will in the conditional clause.

If you take a taxi, you will be there in good time.  NOT  If you will take a taxi...

If you wear a coat, you won’t get cold.  NOT  If you will wear a coat...

• If you see the situation as unreal, imaginary, or less likely to happen, you use the simple past tense in the conditional clause and would (’d), might, or could in the main clause. Don’t use would in the conditional clause.

If you saw a ghost, what would you do?  NOT  If you would see a ghost...

If I bought a new coat, I might not feel so cold. (=I would possibly not feel so cold)

If I found their address, I could write to them. (=I would be able to write to them)

In sentences of this kind, the past tense of the verb be appears as were after the first and third persons, in formal speech and writing. Only use was in informal speech.

If I were at home, I would be watching television. (informal: If I was at home...)

If John were playing today, we’d have a chance of winning. (informal: If John was playing...)

• If you want to talk about conditional situations in the past, use had (’d) in the conditional clause, and would have in the main clause.

If I’d seen her, I would have asked her to call. (=I did not see her)

The books wouldn’t have been damaged if Mary had moved them. (="Mary" didn’t move them)

•You can use when instead of if in sentences of the first type (present simple + will etc), but not with those of the second (simple past + would etc). When is not used in situations that are unlikely or impossible.

 What will John do if he goes home? (="John" is probably going home)  OR  What will John do when he goes home? (="John" is definitely going home)

 What would John do if he went home? (="John" is probably not going home)  NOT What would John do when he went home?

 I would shout if I saw a ghost.  NOT  I would shout when I saw a ghost.

 If you want to talk about a situation in the present which you are not happy about, and would like to change, use the simple past tense in the conditional clause.

 I wish I had a new bike. (="unfortunately," I don’t have a new bike)

If you want to talk about a situation in the past which you are not happy about, and would like to change, use had in the conditional clause.

I wish I’d gone by train. (="unfortunately," I didn’t go by train)

I wish I hadn’t gone by train. (="unfortunately," I did go by train)

Comparison

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES

If you want to compare two things, you use the comparative form of an adjective. For example the comparative form of big is bigger, and the comparative form of interesting is more interesting.

 Your car is bigger than mine.

His new book is more interesting than his last one.

 If you want to say that one thing is bigger, faster, more interesting etc than all the others of a group of things, you use the superlative form of an adjective. For example, the superlative form of big is biggest, and the superlative form of interesting is the most interesting.

 It’s the fastest motorcycle in the world.

What’s the most delicious food you’ve ever eaten?

 CHOOSING THE RIGHT FORM OF THE ADJECTIVE

If the adjective is one syllable long, you add ‑er or ‑est to it, sometimes making a change in the spelling.

 adjective                    comparative                        superlative

tall                                taller                                        tallest

big                               bigger                                      biggest

nice                             nicer                                        nicest

 If the adjective is three or more syllables long, you add the words more or most before it.

 That’s a more interesting question.

Kim’s question was the most interesting one.

The new trains are more comfortable than the old ones.

That’s the most comfortable bed I’ve ever slept in.

Most adjectives with two syllables use more and most to form the comparative and superlative, but some two‑syllable adjectives have ‑er/‑est endings, and some two-syllable adjectives use both methods.

 The ‑er/‑est endings are possible with adjectives ending in ‑y, ‑ow, ‑le, ‑er, ‑ure. Don’t forget that with adjectives that end in ‑y, the ‑y changes to ‑i.

 adjective                                comparative                        superlative

happy                                      happier                                    happiest

gentle                                      gentler                                     gentlest

narrow                                     narrower                                  narrowest

clever                                      cleverer                                   cleverest

 You keep this pattern even in the cases where you can add un‑ to a two-syllable adjective.

 unhappier/unhappiest

 Proper and eager do not follow this rule: you can use only more/most with them.

 You use more/most with all other two‑syllable adjectives.

 more/most active                more/most useful           more/most recent

ADJECTIVES THAT DO NOT FOLLOW THE NORMAL RULES

Not all adjectives follow the normal rules. Some adjectives have completely irregular forms. The most common ones are:

 adjective                    comparative                         superlative

good                            better                                       best

bad                              worse                                      worst

little                              less                                         least

 Words which are formed from a verb, and which end in ‑ing, ‑ed, or other past forms, always use more/most, no matter how many syllables they have.

 His latest film is even more boring than his previous ones.

She was more shocked than I was.

COMPARING TWO THINGS WHICH ARE THE SAME

If you want to say that two things are the same size, the same height etc, you can say that one thing is as big as the other, as tall as the other etc.

 She’s as tall as her sister.

Do you think this summer will be as hot as last summer?

 COMPARING TWO THINGS WHICH ARE NOT THE SAME

If you want to say that two things are not the same size, the same height etc, you can say that one thing is not as big as the other, not as tall as the other etc.

 The meal wasn’t as good as the last meal I had there.

I’m not as fat as him.  OR  I’m not as fat as he is.

London is not as expensive as some other European cities.

 You can use less ... than to mean the same thing as not as ... as, but you usually use it with adjectives that have two or more syllables, for example less expensive, less important.

 Value for money is less important than quality and reliability.

  Don’t use less with short adjectives such as good, old etc.

 You can leave out the second as and the noun after it, if you have already mentioned or suggested the second thing that you are comparing.

 The material looks like silk, but it’s not as expensive. (="not" as expensive as silk)

 Similarly, you can also leave out the than part of the comparison when you are using less, if you have already mentioned or suggested the second thing that you are comparing.

 I prefer the old Hollywood movies. They’re much less violent. (="than" modern films)

The buses are less crowded after 10 o’clock. (="than" they are before 10 o’clock)

 If you want to say that one type of thing is less expensive, less important etc than all other things of the same type, you can say that it is the least expensive, the least important etc.

 People usually choose the least expensive brand.

  Don’t use least with short adjectives such as good, old etc.

Active and passive

In the sentence The dog chased the cat, the verb (chased) is active. If you turn it around, and say The cat was chased by the dog, the verb (was chased) is passive. You form the passive by using the verb be and the past participle of the main verb. For example, the passive of attack is be attacked, the passive of pay is be paid, and the passive of see is be seen. You can only use the passive with transitive verbs.

 WHEN TO USE AN ACTIVE VERB

You use an active verb when you want to say that the subject of a sentence does something. For example:

 She opened the window.

WHEN TO USE A PASSIVE VERB

You use a passive verb when you want to say that something happens to the subject of the sentence. For example:

 President Kennedy was killed in 1963.

 You often use a passive verb when talking about the history of something. For example:

 The bridge was built in the 19th century.

The company was established in 1826.

 In these cases, it is much more natural to use the passive than to find a vague, active way of expressing the sentence (such as Someone built this bridge in the 19th century.).

 You often use a passive verb when you are writing about science, or when you are saying how things are made. For example:

 Hydrogen and oxygen can be easily mixed in this way.

Paper is made from wood.

 If you used an active verb here, you would have to say who does the action –

information which is not known or not important.

If you want to say who does the action of the verb in a passive sentence, use by and then say who does it.

 President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald in 1963.

The bridge was designed by Brunel.

HOW TO CHANGE AN ACTIVE SENTENCE INTO A PASSIVE ONE

There are three things you need to do in order to change an active sentence into a passive one.

 1. Move the subject of the active verb to the end of the sentence, and put by in front of it.

 2. Move the object of the active verb to the front of the sentence, so that it becomes the passive subject.

 3. Change the verb from active to passive. You do this by adding a form of the auxiliary verb be and the past participle of the main verb.

THE PASSIVE WITH ‘GET’

You can also make a passive using get instead of be. This kind of passive is very common in conversation. Do not use it in formal writing. You often use this kind of passive to say that something happened suddenly to someone.

 I got sacked by my firm.  OR  I was sacked by my firm.

He got hit by a car.  OR  He was hit by a car.

 You can also use the passive with get when you want to suggest that an action is more forceful or more important to you.

 I get paid on Thursday.  OR  I am paid on Thursday.

We often get asked this question.  OR  We are often asked this question.